BEOWULF

-date of the work (c. 800) (but the extant manuscript belongs to the first quarter of the 11th century)

-authorship (& anonymity in Middle Ages)

-text (OE) and its history (of translations)

-prose and verse

-the analysis of language (OE or PDE?) 

-the analysis of content (from historical/ religious/ mythical, etc. perspectives)

-research on Beowulf 

Beowulf is a poem of infinite variety. If we cannot know precisely what it may have meant to its original, probably monastic, audience, it certainly speaks to modern audiences in many modes and moods. It has been called a heroic epic, a wondertale, an elegy for a bygone age, a mirror for princes, a celebration of pagan Germanic values, an allegory of Christian virtues, an exploration of the moral ambiguities of life and so on (Kendall, p. 1).

TRANSLATION

-It uses kennings: use of descriptive circumlocutions instead of directly referring to things or people

Hronrade: whale road (sea)

Beaga brytta: ring giver (lord)

Beadoleoma: flashing light (sword)

-Its diction is elevated, hence, it represents a typical epic

-Gnomic sayings: short sayings encapsulating an ethical code, a belief, etc. “Through deeds that bring praise, a man shall prosper in every country

Mead: “A drink similar to beer or ale, but made by fermenting honey, instead of grain” (Elaine Strong, p. 13).

Mead Hall: (Heorot in Beowulf). “A large hall where the lord's thanes ate and slept. It was a place for gift-giving, entertainment, and royal festivals” (Elaine Strong, p. 13).

wyrd: destiny 

ellen: courage

gethyld: patience or acceptance of suffering 

The above have thematic significance in the poem; and have not to be easily compared with our modern conceptions of patience or heroism. 

CULTURE

The poem depicts the codes of heroism in early middle ages and among Scandinavian tribes; comitatus (i.e. a loyal band of men) is important to know; this was “a band of noble warriors who, in return for the wealth, protection and guidance offered by their leader, are prepared to fight to the death in defence of – or revenge for – their lord’s life and who have committed themselves to him with public vows of loyalty.” (Allard and North, p. 368).

COMITATUS AND GRENDEL"S ATTACKS

In regards to comitatus, it was almost impossible for the warriors to think about leaving Hrothgar despite years of being attacked by Grendel. This is their fate and they have to accept it.

We see comparable codes in The Death of Arthur, another sample of chivalric codes during the middle ages.

STRUCTURE

Beowulf is often confusing; the poem is old and some information in the poem testify that it was written around 6th or 7th century; 

its cultural referents and historical allusions are obscure; the language itself was (and is) not easy to translate into modern English. 

Scholarly  research has not been able to resolve all mysteries and cruxes of the text. Besides all the above, some parts of the manuscript was badly damaged by fire in 1731. 

In the following, I mention a few key points in the development of the epic’s plot.   

-The story of Scyld Scefing; this part of the poem is about the formation of a dynasty in Denmark. Scyld 1. Scefing is the founder of this Danish dynasty.

2. Hrothgar is a descendant of Scyld. 

3. He builds a meadhall for his men, called Heorot. 

4. Grendel, a man-eating monster constantly attacks the meadhall.

5. Grendel is introduced as a descendant of biblical Cain. 

6. Beowulf (a Geat) hears about the scourge and travels (from Southern Sweden) to Denmark to fight Grendel. 

7. He is well received by Hrothgar. 

8. He fights Grendel with bare hands and tears apart the monster’s arm. 

9. There is celebration in Heorot; Beowulf receives much gold and praise; they hang the monster’s arm from the ceiling.